Companion animals
Companion animals are growing in numbers not only in the West but also in many Asian countries (e.g., China). In some respects companion animals receive special treatment (as compared with other animals used by us). In other respects, however, they suffer as a direct result of the way we use them. Some companion animals, for instance, develop health or behavioural problems caused by social and physical factors in their environment.
Our awareness of the importance of companion animals in many people's lives is growing; in fact such animals are frequently used for therapeutic purposes. At the same time, many companion animals are abandoned, given up to shelters, or euthanized. Companion animals thus seem to be viewed both as individuals to be respected in their own right and as disposable sources of enrichment for humans.
On this site you will find various publications about companion animal ethics and welfare within the categories listed below. The categories are sorted alphabetically.
History of companion animals and the companion animal sector
By P. Sandøe, S. Corr, C. Palmer & J. Serpell (2016)
Ch. 1 in Sandøe, P., Corr, S.A., and Palmer, C., Companion animal ethics. Wiley Blackwell
Excerpt
Many households in the industrialised Western world own companion animals. The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA, 2012) reported that just over a third of US households kept one or more dogs in 2011, and just under a third kept one or more cats (AVMA, 2012: p. 1). Figures are similar, though somewhat lower, in the European Union (EU) where, in 2010, just over 25% of households had at least one dog, and just under 25% had at least one cat, according to the European Pet Food Industry (FEDIAF, 2010). In most Western countries, the number of households keeping dogs and cats has been steadily growing for decades.
The AVMA (2012) also gives us information on people’s attitudes to the animals in their homes. Two-thirds of US dog owners see their dogs as members of the family; most of the rest, according to the survey, view them as ‘companions’ or ‘pets’. Over half the owners see cats as family members. For both species, the younger the owners, the more likely they are to view their animals as family members (AVMA, 2012: p. 14). According to a survey prepared for a pet food company in 2000, nearly half of American dog owners have taken their dog on vacation, and a similar number have celebrated their dog’s birthday (Ralston Purina, 2000). Thus the general trend is not only to allow dogs and cats into the family home but also – in these respects, at least – to treat them as members of the family.
History of Companion Animals and the companion animal sector (pdf)
Companion animal ethics
By P. Sandøe, S. Corr & C. Palmer (2013)
Luentokokoelma. Julkaisija Fennovet Oy
Summary
Companion animal issues give rise to dilemmas and disagreements. These dilemmas and disagreements arise due to different interpretations of scientific findings, different understandings of what constitutes animal welfare, different views about which values matter, different ways of weighting or adding up the relevant values, and different ideas about how the relevant values should be put into practice. To explain how ethical priorities have evolved, first we give a brief overview of the history of current Western attitudes to animal companions, and how the veterinary and other professions developed to deal with companion animals. Next, two specific issues that give rise to dilemmas and disagreements in companion animal ethics are discussed: 1) the issue of whether all dogs should be routinely neutered; and 2) the issue of feeding and the related problems of canine and feline obesity.
Companion Animal Ethics (pdf)
The burden of domestication: a representative study of welfare in privately owned cats in Denmark
By P. Sandøe, A. P. Nørspang, B. Forkman, C. R. Bjørnvad, S. V. Kondrup & T. B. Lund (2017)
Animal Welfare. UFAW
Abstract
The way in which domestic cats are kept and bred has changed dramatically over the last two centuries. Notably, a significant number of cats are kept indoors, most of them are neutered and many are selectively bred. This likely has consequences for their welfare. A few studies link housing, neuter status and breeding in cats to risks of welfare problems. However, the study presented here is the first to quantify the risks and document the prevalence of risk factors. It builds on results from a questionnaire sent to a representative sample of the Danish population. Using the responses from cat owners who keep cats in the home (n = 378), the paper aims to investigate how indoor confinement, neutering and selective breeding affect health, behaviour and other factors relating to cat welfare. The paper reports that confined cats had significantly more behavioural problems than free-roaming cats; that a smaller proportion of the free-roaming cats suffered from the behavioural problems investigated; and that entire cats had significantly more behavioural problems than neutered cats. Finally, significantly more purebred cats than domestic shorthair cats were found to have diseases. Being confined, being intact and being purebred are therefore significant risk factors for behavioural or health problems associated with reduced welfare in privately owned cats.
The burden of domestication: a representative study of welfare in privately owned cats in Denmark (pdf)
Assessment of animal welfare in a veterinary context - a call for ethologists
By S. B. Christiansen & B. Forkman (2007)
Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Elsevier
Abstract
With the increasingly advanced treatments offered in veterinary medicine, the need to evaluate not only the treatment itself but also the implications of the treatment for the welfare of the animal has become more apparent. Follow-up studies are important sources of information for veterinarians concerning the potential outcome of a treatment and some of these studies include a statement concerning the welfare of the animal involved. In veterinary medicine the concept of animal welfare is often equated to health status, but it is important to distinguish between the success of the treatment in restricted terms, i.e. the health aspects; and the success in more global terms, i.e. how the general welfare of the animal is during and after the treatment.
A qualitative analysis was done on 32 follow-up studies of veterinary treatment given to dogs and cats, making reference to the terms animal welfare, quality of life or well-being. The studies typically speak about quality of life, and rarely define the terms used. The parameters used to assess animal welfare are primarily related to clinical aspects, while behavioural parameters for a broader welfare assessment - if used at all - are often crude. The assessments are made by animal owners, and sometimes also by veterinarians.
These results have severe implications for the validity and sensitivity of such studies. Seen from an ethological point of view, most studies are lacking sufficient broadness and detail in the parameters used to provide a basis for animal welfare assessments beyond a clinical evaluation. Veterinarians and animal owners do not necessarily have the required ethological knowledge to assess animal welfare in a broader sense. And both may be personally involved and thus introduce a bias in the assessment.
The development and validation of parameters and instruments for animal welfare assessment in a veterinary context
Assessment of animal welfare in a veterinary context - a call for ethologists (pdf)
The value of animal life: How should we balance quality against quantity?
By P. Sandøe & S. B. Christiansen (2007)
Animal Welfare. UFAW
Abstract
In many
The value of animal life: How should we balance quality against quantity? (limited access)
Roaming companion cats as potential causes of conflict and controversy – a representative questionnaire study of the Danish public
By P. Sandøe, A. P. Nørspang, S. V. Kondrup, C. R. Bjørnvad, B. Forkman, & T. B. Lund (2018)
Anthrozoös. Routledge
Abstract
Cats have grown in popularity as companion animals, but there are also people who strongly dislike them. Companion cats allowed to roam freely outdoors are seen by some as a nuisance. This paper, drawing on research conducted in Denmark, aims to quantify potentially conflicting attitudes to cats among the public that may feed into cat-related conflicts and controversies. Questionnaire data were collected from a representative sample of the Danish population (n = 2,003), where 21% (n = 415) owned cats and 79% (n = 1,588) did not. In all, 65% of respondents confirmed that they liked cats, 21% reported that they did not, and 14% were undecided. The main reasons for disliking cats concerned “behavior,” not hazards such as the spread of diseases and predation. Of the 21% of the surveyed Danes who reported that they currently had a cat in the household, 72% allowed their cat to roam outdoors. Sixty percent of the respondents did not perceive this as a problem. However, the potential for conflict was demonstrated by the fact that 27% of respondents regarded outdoor roaming as problematic. Of these, about a quarter saw free-roaming cats as a big problem and as a cause of strife between neighbors. Comparatively fewer of those who owned cats saw their animals as a cause of problems. Thus, only 12% of those owning outdoor cats thought that problems were caused when their cats defecated in a neighbor’s garden, which compares with the 17% of the total population who are bothered by other people’s cats defecating in their gardens. Our data show that while the majority of Danes believe cats should be allowed to roam in public spaces, a significant minority strongly dislikes cats and would prefer restrictions on roaming.
Why do people buy dogs with potential welfare problems related to extreme conformation and inherited disease? A representative study of Danish owners of four small dog breeds
By P. Sandøe, S. V. Kondrup, P. C. Bennett, B. Forkman, I. Meyer, H. F. Proschowsky, J. A. Serpell, T. B. Lund (2017)
PLOS ONE. PLOS
Abstract
A number of dog breeds suffer from welfare problems due to extreme phenotypes and high levels of inherited diseases but the popularity of such breeds is not declining. Using a survey of owners of two popular breeds with extreme physical features (French Bulldog and Chihuahua), one with a high load of inherited diseases not directly related to conformation (Cavalier King Charles Spaniel), and one representing the same size range but without extreme conformation and with the same level of disease as the overall dog population (Cairn Terrier), we investigated this seeming paradox. We examined planning and motivational factors behind acquisition of the dogs, and whether levels of experienced health and behavior problems were associated with the quality of the owner-dog relationship and the intention to re-procure a dog of the same breed. Owners of each of the four breeds (750/breed) were randomly drawn from a nationwide Danish dog registry and invited to participate. Of these, 911 responded, giving a final sample of 846. There were clear differences between owners of the four breeds with respect to degree of planning prior to purchase, with owners of Chihuahuas exhibiting less. Motivations behind choice of dog were also different. Health and other breed attributes were more important to owners of Cairn Terriers, whereas the dog’s personality was reported to be more important for owners of French Bulldogs and Cavalier King Charles Spaniels but less important for Chihuahua owners. Higher levels of health and behavior problems were positively associated with a closer owner-dog relationship for owners of Cavalier King Charles Spaniels and Chihuahuas but, for owners of French Bulldogs, high levels of problems were negatively associated with an intention to procure the same breed again. In light of these findings, it appears less paradoxical that people continue to buy dogs with welfare problems.
Insect-repelling behaviour in horses in relation to insect prevalence and access to shelters
By JW Christensen, CG Strøm, K Nicová, CL de Gaillard, P Sandøe & H Skovgård (2022)
Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Elsevier
Abstract
Pasture access is key to horse welfare, but during summer biting insects can cause discomfort and lead to health issues related to transmission of diseases and allergies. To measure the level of discomfort and whether access to shelters or other indoor areas may help prevent biting insect nuisance, we studied 39 horses: n = 21 with free indoor access (five groups) and n = 18 without indoor access (four groups) and recorded horse position (e.g., inside or outside), insect-repelling behaviour (e.g., tail swishing and head tossing), faeces cortisol metabolites, weather conditions, and insect prevalence through trap catches (e.g., tabanids which are known to attack horses). Data were collected one day per week per group for eight weeks during midsummer. Tail swishing (mean occurrence: 29.4 ± 1.1 per min) and skin shivering (mean occurrence: 13.8 ± 0.6 per min) were the most frequently recorded behaviours. The total frequency of insect-repelling behaviour was affected by treatment (indoor access vs. no access) and tabanid trap catches in interaction (F1281 = 8.08, P = 0.005), as more repelling behaviour was shown by horses without indoor access with increasing tabanid prevalence. Horses with indoor access were inside on 69% of recordings on days with a high tabanid prevalence vs. 14% on days with low tabanid prevalence. Concentrations of faeces cortisol metabolites did not differ between days with low vs. high tabanid prevalence. The following year, we conducted a small follow-up study on 13 horses (6 with free indoor access and 7 without) and recorded behaviour and saliva cortisol on four selected summer days with either low or high insect prevalence (2 ‘low’ and 2 ‘high’ days). On ‘high’ insect days, saliva cortisol increased significantly in horses without indoor access, suggesting that biting insect nuisance is reflected in saliva cortisol concentra- tions. We conclude that free access to shelters or other indoor areas during summer reduce nuisance by biting insects and thereby can improve horse welfare.
Insect-repelling behaviour in horses in relation to insect prevalence and access to shelters (URL)
Development and consistency of fearfulness in horses from foal to adult
By J. Winther Christensen, C. Beblein & J. Malmkvist (2020)
Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Elsevier
Abstract
Understanding the development and consistency of behavioural responses across life stages is of both fundamental and applied interest. In horses, fearfulness is particularly important because fear reactions are a major cause of human-horse accidents, and because fear is a negative emotional state with negative consequences for animal welfare and performance. In this study, we investigated the development and consistency of fear reactions in horses, from foal to adult. Twenty-five warmblood stallions of the same age, kept under the same conditions and with minimal human handling, were tested in novel object tests before weaning from the dam (at 5 months) and after weaning, at 1 year (two tests) and again at 3.5 years of age (two tests). Behaviour and heart rate responses were recorded. We found that foals’ expression of alertness towards novel objects was the best predictor of their later behaviour. Some changes in the expression of fear-related behaviour were evident pre and post weaning. Consequently, there were stronger correlations between the post-weaning tests, although these were further separated in time (2.5 years) than the 5 months and 1-year tests (7–9 months). Further, there were positive correlations in the horses’ reactions in the two tests at 1 year and at 3 years (e.g. heart rate: rs = 0.82, P < 0.001 and alertness: rs = 0.68, P < 0.001), suggesting that fearfulness is relatively stable across test situations at a certain age point. We conclude that it is possible to test for fearfulness at an early age (before weaning), by measuring the level of alertness towards novel objects. However, responses in post-weaning tests are more consistent. Our findings contribute to an understanding of the expression, development and consistency of fearfulness, which is advantageous for early assessment of behavioural differences in horses.
Development and consistency of fearfulness in horses from foal to adult (pdf)
Breeding schemes for intervertebral disc disease in Dachshunds: Is disc calcification score preferable to genotyping of the FGF4 retrogene insertion on CFA12?
By C. S. Bruun, C. Bruun, T. Marx, H. F. Proschowsky & M. Fredholm (2020)
Canine Medicine and Genetics. BMC
Abstract
Background
Approximately every fifth Dachshund is affected by disc herniation - a painful, hereditary condition which is typically preceded by disc calcification. Therefore, the selection of dogs suitable for breeding can be based on radiographic examination of calcification status.
Recently, an insertion of an FGF4 retrogene on CFA12 has been identified and associated with the risk of developing disc herniation in chondrodystrophic breeds and a DNA test is now offered.
In this study we investigate the incidence of disc herniation in the smooth-haired, long-haired and wire- haired Dachshund populations. We also evaluate and compare the accuracy of the two breeding schemes predicting the risk of disc herniation: the DNA test and the radiography based scheme.
Results
The overall incidence of disc herniation in Danish Dachshunds was 18% and no significant difference was found between the long-haired (17%), smooth-haired (22%) and wire-haired (16%) populations (p > 0.05). We found a significant association (p < 0.0001) between calcification status and the risk of disc herniation with a relative risk of 14.78. Using calcification status (≥ 5 or < 5 calcifications) as a risk indicator has a sensitivity of 0.79 and a specificity of 0.91.
A significant association between the FGF4 retrogene insertion and the disc calcification status was found in the wire-haired population (p < 0.0001) where the DNA test has a sensitivity of 1.0 and a specificity of 0.14. In the long- and smooth-haired populations no association was found (p > 0.05) and here the insertion allele was almost fixed.
Conclusion
Our results show that the FGF4 retrogene insertion on CFA12 is not a valid risk indicator on its own. Relying on the DNA test will have an irreversible effect on the Dachshund breed excluding almost all dogs from breeding. Thus, using calcification status remains the most reliable breeding scheme for disc herniation in Dachshunds.
Breeding French bulldogs so that they breathe well—A long way to go
By E.-M. Ravn-Mølby, L. Sindahl, S. S. Nielsen, C. S. Bruun, P. Sandøe & M. Fredholm (2019)
PLOS ONE. PLOS
Abstract
Brachycephalic syndrome (BS) is a pathophysiological disorder caused by excessive soft tissue within the upper airways of short-nosed dog breeds, causing obstruction of the nasal, pharyngeal and laryngeal lumen, resulting in severe respiratory distress. As the prevalence of BS appears to be high among some of the affected breeds, there is an urgent need for breeding efforts to improve the health status of those dogs. In the present study, we evaluated correlations between morphometric and other phenotypic characteristics and BS in a population of 69 French bulldogs from Denmark to identify parameters that could serve as a basis for breeding against BS. Furthermore, the genetic variation was monitored to determine whether it would be possible to breed based on these characteristics without simultaneously causing a critical reduction in genetic variation. Six phenotypic characteristics were correlated with the Brachycephalic Syndrome Functional (BSF) score. Among the morphometric risk factors, nostril stenosis (NS) and neck girth (NG) had the highest impact on the BSF score, accounting for 32% and 4% of the variation, respectively. The genetic variation in the population was comparable to other pure breeds, i.e. estimated and observed heterozygosity was 0.60 and the average inbreeding coefficient was 0.01. If only dogs with Grades 1 and 2 NS (no or only mild NS) were selected for breeding the mean BSF score would be reduced significantly. However, it would result in the exclusion of 81% of the population for breeding and this is not prudent. Excluding only dogs with severe stenosis (Grade 4) would exclude 50% of the population without any adverse impact on genetic variation within the population. Although exclusion of dogs with Grade 4 would result in an apparent reduction in the mean BSF score, this reduction is not significant. As NS accounts for 32% of the variation in BSF score, a possible long term strategy to reduce the prevalence of the BS in French bulldogs would seem to be a selection scheme that first excluded dogs with the most severe NS from breeding, gradually moving towards selecting dogs with lower NS grades. According to our findings there is no viable short term solution for reducing the prevalence of BS in the French bulldog population.
Breeding French bulldogs so that they breathe well—A long way to go (pdf)
Why do people buy dogs with potential welfare problems related to extreme conformation and inherited disease? A representative study of Danish owners of four small dog breeds
By P. Sandøe, S. V. Kondrup, P. C. Bennett, B. Forkman, I. Meyer, H. F. Proschowsky, J. A. Serpell, T. B. Lund (2017)
PLOS ONE. PLOS
Abstract
A number of dog breeds suffer from welfare problems due to extreme phenotypes and high levels of inherited diseases but the popularity of such breeds is not declining. Using a survey of owners of two popular breeds with extreme physical features (French Bulldog and Chihuahua), one with a high load of inherited diseases not directly related to
Welfare in horse breeding
By M.L.H. Campbell & P. Sandøe (2015)
Veterinary Record. BMJ Publishing Group
Abstract
Welfare problems related to the way horses are bred, whether by coitus or by the application of artificial reproduction techniques (ARTs), have been given no discrete consideration within the academic literature. This paper reviews the existing knowledge base about welfare issues in horse breeding and identifies areas in which data is lacking. We suggest that all methods of horse breeding are associated with potential welfare problems, but also that the judicious use of ARTs can sometimes help to address those problems. We discuss how negative welfare effects could be identified and limited and how positive welfare effects associated with breeding might be maximised. Further studies are needed to establish an evidence base about how stressful or painful various breeding procedures are for the animals involved, and what the lifetime welfare implications of ARTs are for future animal generations.
Companion animals
By P. Sandøe, S. B. Christiansen & A. T. Kristensen (2008)
Ethics of animal use. Wiley-Blackwell
Excerpt
The suggestion that the keeping of companion animals is just another way of using animals may upset some people. Rather, these people may argue, keeping animals as companions is a way of life that includes animals on a par with friends and members of the family. And the similarities are obvious: "Someone living with a pet is living with a family. A pet owner is greeted at the door when she returns at night; she has someone to sit on the couch with and share the television. There is someone she must shop for, feed and care for and who thus gives to her own life the paced, circular rhythm of family life." There is no doubt that for many owners of companion animals, the bond they share with their animals displays a number of similarities with the bond they share with human friends and family members, in particular children. The strength of this relation, the human-animal bond, is increasingly recognised and acknowledged when various situations involving companion animals are addressed. However, many also point out differences in animal-human and human-human relations. Certainly, an uncritical comparison of the former with the latter is misleading.
Companion animals - chapter 8 (pdf)
Neutering increases the risk of obesity in male dogs but not in bitches - A cross-sectional study of dog- and owner- related risk factors for obesity in Danish companion dogs
By C. R. Bjørnvad, S. Gloor, S. S. Johansen, P. Sandøe & T. B. Lund (2019)
Preventive Veterinary Medicine. Elsevier
Abstract
Knowledge of risk factors for canine obesity is an important pre-requisite of effective preventative strategies. This study aimed to investigate risk factors for canine obesity in adult companion dogs across Zealand, Denmark. Client-owned dogs (>2 years of age and without chronic illness) were recruited and examined at eight companion animal veterinary practices in areas with varying socio-economic characteristics. The body condition score (BCS) of the dogs was examined by two investigators based on a 9-point scoring scheme. Dog owners answered a questionnaire that had prompts regarding: 1) dog characteristics, including neuter status, 2) owner characteristics, 3) feeding and exercise practices and 4) the owners’ attachment to the dog. The effect of these factors on BCS and the risk of being heavy/obese (BCS scores 7–9) were analysed in two separate analyses.
A total of 268 dogs were included in the analysis, of which 20.5% were found to be heavy/obese. The average BCS was 5.46. In terms of dog characteristics, neutering dramatically increased both BCS and the risk of being heavy/obese in male dogs but not in bitches. BCS and the risk of being heavy/obese increased in senior bitches and decreased in senior male dogs. The risk of being heavy/obese was higher in dogs with overweight and obese owners. Regarding feeding and exercise practices, providing only one meal per day increased BCS and risk of being heavy/obese. Treats during relaxation increased the risk of dogs being heavy/obese. It also increased the dogs’ BCS, but only if the owners were overweight or obese. An increased duration of daily walking increased the risk of the dog being heavy/obese, but only if the owner was overweight or obese. Allowing the dog to run free in the garden/property decreased the risk of the dog being heavy/obese. The owners’ attachment to the dog was not associated with the dogs’ BCS or dogs’ being heavy/obese.
An important and novel finding was that neutering increased the risk of being overweight or obese for male dogs while bitches were at risk irrespective of neuter status. Furthermore, a complex interaction between owners’ weight status, feeding practices and the risk of dogs being overweight or obese was found, which stresses the need to consider companion animal obesity from a One Health perspective in future prospective studies. Finally, this study was unable to confirm that canine obesity is a product of owners being too attached to their dogs.
Beyond Castration and Culling: Should we use Non-Surgical, Pharmacological Methods to Control the Sexual Behavior and Reproduction of Animals?
By C. Palmer, H. G. Pedersen & Peter Sandøe (2018)
Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. Springer Nature
Abstract
This paper explores ethical issues raised by the application of non-surgical, pharmaceutical fertility control to manage reproductive behaviors in domesticated and wild animal species. We focus on methods that interfere with the effects of GnRH, making animals infertile and significantly suppressing sexual behavior in both sexes. The paper is anchored by considering ethical issues raised by four diverse cases: the use of pharmaceutical fertility control in (a) male slaughter pigs (b) domesticated stallions and mares (c) male companion dogs and (d) female white-tailed deer. Ethical concerns explored include animals' welfare, the possible violation of animals' rights, including rights to life, reproduction and bodily integrity; and potential concerns about loss of wildness. We compare ethical concerns about pharmaceutical fertility control with alternative strategies for managing animals' reproductive behavior including (where appropriate) spaying and neutering, sex separation, sex sorting, culling, and doing nothing. The paper concludes that there are some cases where pharmaceutical fertility control is the best ethical choice in current circumstances; but that there are other cases where alternative choices, including doing nothing, would be ethically preferable. This suggests that in ethical terms a case-by-case approach should be taken to the use of pharmaceutical fertility control in animals.
Inconvenient Desires: Should We Routinely Neuter Companion Animals?
By C. Palmer, S. Corr & P. Sandøe (2012)
Anthrozoös. Berg Publishers
Abstract
Influential parts of the veterinary profession, and notably the American Veterinary Medicine Association, are promoting the routine neutering of cats and dogs that will not be used for breeding purposes. However, this view is not universally held, even among representatives of the veterinary profession. In particular, some veterinary associations in Europe defend the view that when reproduction is not an issue, then neutering, particularly of dogs, should be decided on a case-by-case basis. However, even in Europe the American view is gaining ground. In light of this situation, this paper considers whether or not routine neutering of cats and dogs, in cases where uncontrolled reproduction is not an issue, can be ethically defended.
The starting point of this consideration is a review of the veterinary literature on the effects of neutering on companion animals. The focus is both on the welfare of neutered animals themselves, and on behavioral and other effects that may not directly affect the animals' welfare, but that may be motivating factors for owners to neuter their companion animals. Here it becomes clear that justification for routine neutering, particularly of confined male dogs, does not follow from claims about the dogs' own welfare. The costs of neutering male dogs, in terms of the increased risk of very serious diseases, may well outweigh the benefits. Then, building on this veterinary material, but including some other, additional considerations, the paper goes through some possible ethical approaches to routine animal neutering. These ethical approaches offer different degrees of concern about, or opposition to, routine neutering. Finally, based on this ethical exploration, it is argued that routine neutering, at least in the case of non- free-ranging companion animals, raises significant ethical questions, and from some ethical perspectives, looks highly problematic.
Inconvenient Desires: Should We Routinely Neuter Companion Animals? (pdf)
Neutering increases the risk of obesity in male dogs but not in bitches - A cross-sectional study of dog- and owner- related risk factors for obesity in Danish companion dogs
By C. R. Bjørnvad, S. Gloor, S. S. Johansen, P. Sandøe & T. B. Lund (2019)
Preventive Veterinary Medicine. Elsevier
Abstract
Knowledge of risk factors for canine obesity is an important pre-requisite of effective preventative strategies. This study aimed to investigate risk factors for canine obesity in adult companion dogs across Zealand, Denmark.
Client-owned dogs (>2 years of age and without chronic illness) were recruited and examined at eight companion animal veterinary practices in areas with varying socio-economic characteristics. The body condition score (BCS) of the dogs was examined by two investigators based on a 9-point scoring scheme. Dog owners answered a questionnaire that had prompts
A total of 268 dogs were included in the analysis, of which 20.5% were found to be heavy/obese. The average BCS was 5.46. In terms of dog characteristics, neutering dramatically increased both BCS and the risk of being heavy/obese in male dogs but not in bitches. BCS and the risk of being heavy/obese increased in senior bitches and decreased in senior male dogs. The risk of being heavy/obese was higher in dogs with overweight and obese owners. Regarding feeding and exercise practices, providing only one meal per day increased BCS and risk of being heavy/obese. Treats during relaxation increased the risk of dogs being heavy/obese. It also increased the dogs’ BCS, but only if the owners were overweight or obese.
An important and novel finding was that neutering increased the risk of being overweight or obese for male dogs while bitches were at risk irrespective of neuter status. Furthermore, a complex interaction between owners’ weight status, feeding practices and the risk of dogs being overweight or obese was found, which stresses the need to consider companion animal obesity from a One Health perspective in future prospective studies. Finally, this study was unable to confirm that canine obesity is a product of owners being too attached to their dogs.
Neutering increases the risk of obesity in male dogs but not in bitches (pdf)
Canine and feline obesity: a One Health perspective
By P. Sandøe, C. Palmer, S. Corr, A. Astrup, & C.R. Bjørnvad (2014)
Veterinary Record. BMJ Group
Abstract
Recent years have seen a drastic increase in the rates of overweight and obesity among people living in some developed nations. There has also been increased concern over obesity in companion animals. In the latest article in Veterinary Record's series on One Health, Peter Sandøe and colleagues argue that the relationship between obesity in people and in companion animals is closer and more complex than previously
Estimating the Population of Unowned Free-Ranging Domestic Cats in Denmark Using a Combination of Questionnaires and GPS Tracking
Nielsen, H.B., Jensen, H.A., Meilby, H., Nielsen, S.S., & Sandøe, P. (2022).
Animals. MDPI
Simple summary
Unowned free-ranging domestic cats divide opinion. Some people object to them. They dislike the noise they cause and disapprove when they find their faeces in gardens and public places. Others are concerned about the cats’ welfare. It is widely believed that the number of unowned unsocialised cats (alleged to be 500,000) and additional unowned socialised cats in Denmark is huge. To assess whether this belief is correct, this study estimated the size of the population of unowned free-ranging domestic cats and their distribution in Denmark using a combination of questionnaires and GPS tracking. It was estimated that approximately 90,000 unowned cats are in the country, and that one-third are socialised and two-thirds unsocialised. It seems therefore that the number of free-ranging cats in Denmark that are unowned and unsocialised is only a fraction of that claimed, and that panic is unwarranted. The highest population density of unowned cats was found in rural areas.
Abstract
The present study aimed (1) to estimate the size of the population of unowned free-ranging domestic cats in Denmark using a questionnaire survey combined with a GPS-tracking survey, and (2) to estimate the distribution of the population across different habitats. The questionnaires were circulated in 94 randomly selected parishes ranging across seven kinds of habitat. Using responses from five of the habitats, we estimated the population of unowned free-ranging cats nationally. In the other two habitats, questionnaire data were collected in a simpler way. The territory of 59 owned cats was estimated with GPS tracking to assess home ranges. Home range area was calculated using 95% Brownian bridge kernel density estimation (0.033–0.077 ± 0.011–0.023 km2, median ± SE). We estimated a population of unowned free-ranging cats in Denmark of 89,000 ± 11,000 (SE), with a mean density of 2 ± 0.3 (SE) cats per km2, living primarily in rural habitats. Approximately one-third of the cats were estimated to be socialised and two-thirds unsocialised. Our method may be suitable for use in other temperate areas facing problems with unowned free-ranging cats.
How Serious Are Health-Related Welfare Problems in Unowned Unsocialised Domestic Cats? A Study from Denmark Based on 598 Necropsies
Thuesen, I. S., Agerholm, J. S., Mejer, H., Nielsen, S. S., & Sandøe, P. (2022)
Animals. MDPI
Simple summary
Domestic cats are very popular companion animals, but a significant number are ownerless. These are either socialised or unsocialised. The former can be re-homed. Unsocialised domestic cats, on the other hand, are difficult to handle and fear humans. Therefore, rehoming them is challenging. Unowned unsocialised cats are seen by many people as a nuisance, a hazard to human and animal health, and a threat to biodiversity. However, others have concerns about their welfare, although our knowledge of how well these cats actually cope is very limited. To remedy this, we studied the corpses of 598 unsocialised cats euthanised in Denmark in 2019 by two cat welfare organisations. Our findings reveal that unsocialised cats in Denmark face only a moderate load of health-related welfare problems, even in comparison with owned cats. So, although there may be other reasons to euthanise unsocialised cats, this practice may, in a place like Denmark, be difficult to justify by pointing to the welfare needs of the cats.
Abstract
Free ranging unsocialised domestic cats are widely believed to suffer from a high load of welfare problems. We assessed the validity of this belief by performing necropsies on the corpses of 598 unsocialised cats, originating from all parts of Denmark, that had been euthanised by two Danish cat welfare organisations. We selected a number of variables for health-related cat welfare that could be assessed through necropsy (e.g., gross lesions, ectoparasites and body condition) or by laboratory analysis (e.g., infection with feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and by feline leukaemia virus (FeLV)). Each finding was classified as having either a major or minor welfare impact on the cat. More than 83% of the cats had no major finding, and 54% had no finding indicating a welfare issue at all. More than 83% of the cats had a body condition within normal range. Only 0.3% were emaciated. The most common finding was infestation with ectoparasites, with 15.9% infected with lice, 12.3% with fleas, 4.7% with ticks, and 6.7% with ear mites. FIV and FeLV were detected in 9.2% and 1.2% of the cases, respectively. The most common lesion related to the cats’ teeth. Overall, unsocialised cats in Denmark have a moderate level of health-related welfare problems.
Owner-related reasons matter more than behavioural problems - a study of why owners relinquished dogs and cats to a Danish animal shelter from 1996 to 2017
By J. B. H. Jensen, P. Sandøe & S. S. Nielsen (2020)
Animals. MDPI
Abstract
Every year, dogs and cats are relinquished to animal shelters by their owners in large numbers. Reasons for relinquishment of dogs and cats to a large Danish shelter from 1996 to 2017 were obtained and characterised. The reasons were available for 86% of the owner-relinquished animals, including 3204 dog relinquishments (90%) and 2755 cat relinquishments (82%). They were allocated to 59 categories, which were further merged into four owner-related and three animal-related reasons. The most commonly reported of these seven reasons for relinquishment of dogs were owner health (29%), animal behavioural problems (23%), housing issues (21%) and lack of time (14%). For cats, the figures were: owner health (32%), housing issues (26%), and animal behavioural problems (25%). No systematic changes in these patterns were found over time. The number of relinquished cats was roughly stable, whereas the number of relinquished dogs decreased on average by 3% per annum. Owner issues were the primary reason for relinquishment in both species, but nearly one-quarter of the animals were relinquished as a result of behavioural problems. As the latter are often connected with the owner in some way, the results emphasise the importance of a focus on owners when addressing pet relinquishment challenges.
Owner-related reasons matter more than behavioural problems (pdf)
Shelters Reflect but Cannot Solve Underlying Problems with Relinquished and Stray Animals—A Retrospective Study of Dogs and Cats Entering and Leaving Shelters in Denmark from 2004 to 2017
By P. Sandøe, J. B. Jensen, F. Jensen & S. S. Nielsen (2019)
Animals. MDPI
Abstract
Data covering about 90% of the estimated intake of dogs and cats to Danish shelters from 2004 to 2017 were used to study the effects of tight control of dogs and of efforts to increase shelter services for unwanted or stray cats. During the period, there was a low and decreasing intake of dogs, while the annual proportion of euthanised dogs increased from 6% to 10%. The number of cats entering shelters increased by about 250%, while the annual proportion of euthanised cats increased from 15% to about 29%. At the same time, there seemed to be a decrease in the population of stray cats. The major increase in cat intake may be due to animal protection non-governmental organizations (NGOs) making it easier to relinquish cats into shelters. Dog shelters can successfully handle surplus animals because dogs are well controlled by owners and are tightly regulated. Cats are more difficult to confine, are often allowed to roam freely and are less regulated. Therefore, cat shelters cannot solve the problem of surplus cats on their own. It is argued that an economic analysis may serve as a point of departure for a discussion on better policy making for NGOs in charge of shelters.
Quality of life assessment in dogs and cats receiving chemotherapy: a review of current methods
By K. K. Vøls, M. A. Heden, A. T. Kristensen & P. Sandøe (2017)
Veterinary and Comparative Oncology. John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Abstract
This study aimed to review currently reported methods of assessing the effects of chemotherapy on the quality of life (QoL) of canine and feline patients and to explore novel ways to assess QoL in such patients in the light of the experience to date in human pediatric oncology. A qualitative comparative analysis of published papers on the effects of chemotherapy on QoL in dogs and cats were conducted. This was supplemented with a comparison of the parameters and domains used in veterinary QoL-assessments with those used in the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL™) questionnaire designed to assess QoL in toddlers. Each of the identified publications including QoL-assessment in dogs and cats receiving chemotherapy applied a different method of 5QoL-assessment. In addition, the veterinary QoL-assessments were mainly focused on physical clinical parameters, whereas the emotional (6/11), social (4/11) and role (4/11) domains were less represented. QoL-assessment of cats and dogs receiving chemotherapy is in its infancy. The most commonly reported method to assess QoL was questionnaire based and mostly included physical and clinical parameters. Standardizing and including a complete range of potentially relevant parameters in future QoL assessments may benefit owner decision making.
Quality of life assessment in dogs and cats receiving chemotherapy: a review of current methods (pdf)
Digital opportunities to connect and complain – the use of Facebook in small animal practice
Springer, S., Lund, T. B., Sandøe, P., Corr, S. A., Kristensen, A. T., & Grimm, H. (2022)
VetRecord Open. British Veterinary Association
Abstract
Background
Social media is increasingly used in small animal practice, enabling veterinarians to connect with clients and promote their business online. It can also be used by clients to quickly distribute complaints via online communities.
Material/methods
Using a questionnaire study we investigated Austrian, Danish and UK veterinarians’ attitudes towards Facebook, the contents of clients’ online complaints and how they were handled by veterinarians (N = 648).
Results
In Denmark and the UK, around 90% of practices had a Facebook page, in contrast to 40% of Austrian practices. Most Danish and UK veterinarians agreed that the use of Facebook was relevant and expected by clients. Agreement was lower among Austrian veterinarians, probably reflecting the lower uptake of social media there. In particular, younger veterinarians and those who actively used Facebook for the practice, could see benefits. In all three countries, we found that clients most frequently complained about treatment costs. Most veterinarians preferred to actively deal with clients’ complaints, either replying online or discussing them directly.
Conclusions
We recommend future research focusing on veterinarians’ personal use of social media and on clients’ use of and attitudes towards social media in the veterinary context.
Digital opportunities to connect and complain – the use of Facebook in small animal practice (URL)
Comparing veterinarians’ attitudes to and the potential influence of pet health insurance in Austria, Denmark and the UK
By S. Springer, T. B. Lund, H. Grimm, A.T. Kristensen, S. A. Corr & P. Sandøe (2022).
VetRecord. BVA
Abstract
Background
Health insurance offers many benefits to clients and veterinarians, such as the ability to perform necessary and possibly cost-intensive medical interventions without financial constraints, or to potentially prevent euthanasia based on financial challenges. However, concerns about negative consequences, such as the overuse of diagnostic tests or overtreatment, have also been raised.
Methods
Using an online questionnaire distributed via e-mail, which included a section on health insurance, we investigated the relative number of insured dogs and cats treated by Austrian, Danish and UK veterinarians (N = 636) and the attitudes of those veterinarians toward health insurance. Further, using a case vignette, we examined whether coverage by health insurance may influence treatment suggestions.
Results
Even though veterinarians in all three countries believe that health insurance reduces stress since clients’ financial resources will be less important, we found that Austrian veterinarians are more likely to agree that health insurance is unnecessary compared to Danish and UK veterinarians. Further, many raised the concern that insurance policies influence clinical decisions; and less than half supported the idea of making insurance mandatory. A majority of veterinarians in Austria and the UK thought that insurance can lead to the overuse of diagnostic tests, and in the UK a majority also thought that it can lead to overtreatment. Using case vignettes, we found that veterinarians were significantly more likely to suggest a CT scan to a client with an insured animal, in contrast to a client with stated financial limitations. Further, UK veterinarians were more likely to suggest a CT scan to a client with an insured animal, in contrast to a client without insurance.
Conclusion
In conclusion, we found that veterinarians, in general, were in favour of health insurance, and that greater coverage may increase more cost-intensive veterinary care. Our findings also raise a potential ethical challenge of health insurance causing differential access to clinical care for patients.
“Patients’ interests first, but . . . ” – Austrian Veterinarians’ Attitudes to Moral Challenges in Modern Small Animal Practice
By S. Springer, P. Sandøe, T. B. Lund & H. Grimm (2019)
Animals. MDPI
Abstract
Austrian Veterinarians’ Attitudes to Moral Challenges in Modern Small Animal Practice (URL)
The veterinarian's dilemma: a study of how Danish small animal practitioners handle financially limited clients
By S. V. Kondrup, K. P. Anhøj, C. Rødsgaard-Rosenbeck, T. B. Lund, M. H. Nissen, & P. Sandøe (2016)
Veterinary Record. BMJ Publishing Group
Abstract
This study examined the extent to which Danish veterinary practices encounter financially limited clients and how different factors relating to the animal, the client and the veterinarian affect decisions to provide treatment for these clients. 300 small animal practices were invited to participate in an online survey. 195 participated, giving a response rate of 65 per cent. The results show that Danish small animal veterinary practices encounter clients with limited finances regularly: 33.8 per cent of them 3–4 times, 24.6 per cent 5–10 times and 19.5 per cent 1–2 times a month. Only around 9 per cent reported having a written practice policy on handling financially limited clients. Factors affecting decisions to treat include the severity and type of the animal’s condition, the medical care needed and the client’s expressed emotions. The propensity to treat is significantly higher in female veterinarians and in situations involving unborn animals. The overall conclusion is that small animal veterinary practices often provide treatment to clients who are not able to pay—far beyond what is legally required. This can be considered a major economic and psychological challenge for the practising veterinarians.
A study of how Danish small animal practitioners handle financially limited clients (pdf)
Veterinarians’ role in clients’ decision-making regarding seriously ill companion animal patients
S.B. Christiansen, A.T. Kristensen, J. Lassen & P. Sandøe (2016)
Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica.BioMed Central
Abstract
Background - When companion animals become seriously ill clients may have doubts about treatment choices, if any, and turn to veterinarians for help. But how should veterinarians reply? Influence on clients’ decision-making may or may not be acceptable—depending on one’s attitude to principles such as ‘paternalism’, ‘respect for autonomy’ and ‘shared decision-making’. This study takes as a starting point a situation where the animal is chronically ill, or aged, with potentially reduced animal welfare and client quality of life, and thus where clients need to consider treatment options or euthanasia. It is assumed throughout that both veterinarians and clients have the animals’ best interest at heart. The purpose of the study was to explore the challenges these situations hold and to investigate how clients experience veterinary influence. A second aim was to reflect on the ethical implications of the role of veterinarians in these situations. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 12 dog owners considering treatment or euthanasia of their chronically ill or aged dogs.
Results - Challenges relating to the dog and to the client were identified. Some situations left the interviewees hesitant, e.g. if lacking a clear cut-off point, the dog appeared normal, the interviewee felt uncertain about treatments or animal welfare, or experienced conflicting concerns. Some interviewees found that veterinarians could influence their decisions. Such influence was received in different ways by the interviewees. Some interviewees wanted
Conclusions - Different preferences are likely to exist amongst both veterinarians and clients about veterinary involvement in clients’ decision-making, and such preferences may vary according to the situation. It is suggested, that one way to handle this challenge is to include respect for client preference on veterinary involvement under a wider understanding of respect for autonomy, and to apply models of shared decision-making to veterinary practice. In any
Veterinarians’ role in clients’ decision-making regarding seriously ill companion animal patients (URL)
Looking After Chronically III Dogs: Impacts on the Caregiver's Life
S.B. Christiansen, A.T. Kristensen, P. Sandøe & J. Lassen (2013)
Anthrozoos. Taylor & Francis
Abstract
Studies in human medicine show that care of chronically ill family members can affect the caregiver's life in several ways and cause “caregiver burden.” Companion animals are offered increasingly advanced veterinary treatments, sometimes involving home care. Owners choosing such treatments could thus face similar challenges when caring for their animals. This qualitative study uncovers impacts on an owner's life, when attending to the care of an aged or chronically ill dog and reflects on the differing roles of caregivers with animal and human patients. Twelve dog owners were selected for in-depth interviews based on the dogs' diagnoses, and the choice of treatments and
Looking After Chronically Ill Dogs (limited access)